Critical accounting theory

unfavourable bill suppositionIntroduction in that location argon some(prenominal) reasons thither is no superstar univers all in ally reliable possible action of accounting. The reasons are of two sorts. The primary is philosophical. The second is practical. This essay discusses each of these. It because renders examples from accounting supposition. Philosophical reasonsThe statement There is no universally evaluate accounting opening is true by definition. Scientific understanding of the experimental condition theory denies that either(prenominal) theory can be universally accepted. gibe to Popper (e.g., 2002a, 2002b), theories are conjectures that are put to the test. If they are refuted by the test, they are every rejected or refined. If they are non refuted, they remain theories (not facts). They are so put to further tests, and are further refined. In order for this to proceed, at that place must exist rival theories. In this vogue, theories compete in a p rocess of Darwinian selection. The theories never get to the truth, that they get progressively closer.This is the first reason at that place is no universally accepted theory of accounting. If thither were a universally accepted theory of accounting, it wouldnt be a theory. It would be approximately occasion else. Notice that, conformationing to Popper, no theory ever arrives at certain knowledge. The best any theory can do is break off ignorance. Moreover, if scientists were to discover a true theory, there would be no steering they could know it was true, so there would still be competing theories.This last academic degree needs elaboration. Gdels incompleteness theorems (see, e.g., Hofstadter, 1979) demonstrate that, in any ashes of logic rich enough to contain formal arithmetic there exists an infinite number of statements that are true but that are impossible, in principle, for the system to know to be true. This means, in practical terms, that in any complex system-f or example, an economic system-there exist solutions to problems that are known by the system, but are not known by any individual within it. This is appreciated by leading economists (e.g., Hayek, 1979). Further, given that there exist ordinarily infinitely more wrong solutions to problems than correct solutions to problems, any attempt to work out such problems by diktat is infinitely more likely to lead to chastening than to success. As regards economics, this led Hayek (1944) to his espousal of the free merchandiseplace. As regards theory in scholarship, it means that any attempt to reduce a single theory on anything is likely to lead to a seriously wrong theory. This is some other reason for believing there can be no universally accepted theory of accounting. Any universally accepted theory could unaccompanied be universally accepted if it were imposed by diktat, and, if it were imposed by diktat, it would of necessity most likely be wrong. Therefore it would give fu ll to a rival theory.Related to this, Feyerabend (1996) argues that there is no such thing as a single scientific method, and that any attempt to impose one is counter-productive. Feyerabends philosophy of science is summa elevatord as anything goes. This, depicts some other reason for there being no single theory of accounting. If there can be no universally accepted method, there can be no universally accepted theory.There are two popular views of science that are in conflict with Poppers perspective positivism and postmodernism. Positivism is the philosophy, associated with Ayer (1946) that says that the solely meaningful statements are those that are true by logic and those that whitethorn be verified by observation. This is the stay principle. The first problem with the verification principle is that it is neither a truth of logic nor an empirically objective fact, therefore by its own terms it is meaningless. The second problem is that in implies science proceeds inductive ly. But inductive logic (drawing general conclusions from unique(predicate) instances) is flawed a million observations of white swans, for example, does not demonstrate that all swans are white (indeed, they arent some swans are black).Postmodernism is the philosophy that reality is socially constructed. So what is real to one person whitethorn be nugatory to another. At a trivial level, this is true, for different people see the aforementioned(prenominal) things in different ways. It is also true that, historically, science progressed in some instances by changes in world view, or paradigm (Kuhn, 1996). However, this is a marvel more of the sociology of science, not of ontology. And taken literally postmodernism is absurd. It leads to the conclusion that there is no such thing as reality.The prevalence of competing philosophies of science-Popperism, positivism, and postmodernism-provides another reason for there being no universally accepted theory of accounting. There is no universally accepted view of what constitutes reality. therefore one should expect there to be different theories of accounting, each with its cadre of supporters.Practical reasonsThere are trinity purposes for any theory of accounting, and each makes different demands on the theory.The first is that accounting should provide the best information about a companys position. such a theory is prescriptive, in that it suggests how best controllers should ply their trade. Such a view phase is said to be normative. A normative theory is one that states what is best practice.A theory of accounting may also explore to describe what accountants do. Any science must include accurate descriptions. It is logically possible for a researcher to adhere to a descriptive theory yet bemoan the fact that accountants dont embody what the researcher considers the correct (i.e., normative) practice.There is another aspect to descriptive theories. Until the advent of cheap computers, there was no w ay that researchers could dissect vast collections of data. Moreover, very often the data were unavailable (Gaffikin), 2008). Computers select changed this. This is another reason for believing there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A descriptive theory is completely as good as the data fed into it. But it is impossible to analyse all the data, only different blocks of data. Different blocks may give rise to different descriptions.In describing how accountants behave, researchers must collaborate evidence. But what evidence? And how should researchers gather it? Positivists go to use quantitative data. These are data that are, supposedly objective, and may be expressed numerically and manipulated statistically. Company sales figures are an example. Postmodernists tend to use soft data. These are data that make no select to objectivity and are difficult to express numerically. The findings of un coordinated interviews-emotions, impressions, and so on-are exampl es of qualitative data. Because of this, even when presented with the same evidence, different researchers may reach different conclusions. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting.A theory of accounting can seek to explain. Such theories are scientific in the Popperian sense, for they may be refuted. It is logically possible for a researcher to believe that surmisal 1 is the best explanatory theory, Theory 2 is the best descriptive theory, and Theory 3 is the best normative theory. Thus again there are many theories of accounting. Any researcher may subscribe to three different theories, and do so without being inconsistent.In practice, the distinction between normative, descriptive, and explanatory theories is blurred. Any theory of one caseful may have features of the others. Example theoriesThis section considers discusses two example theories. Theory 1 Positive accounting theoryThere are several problems with normative theory. One concerns what to enter. Consider assets. An accountant does not know how often a companys assets are worth. So the accountant uses one of several indicators (historical cost, for instance). The accountant must also estimate how much assets depreciate. Accountants use algorithms to calculate depreciation-typically, satisfying line depreciation such that assets become worthless after three years. Such algorithms are only broadly accurate.Such considerations led Watts and Zimmerman (1978) to gear up despotic accountancy theory. The theory is in part descriptive, in that it states what real-world accountants do, and in part explanatory, in that it purports to explain why accountants behave in the way they do. The theory says, in effect, that company accounts do not accord with reality. Instead, they accord with what powerful interests (stakeholders, shareholders, managers) want others to see as reality.The theory makes two assumptions military personnel economicus. This states three things. First, people are entirely rational. Second, people act only out of self-interest. Third, people act only to maximise their wealth.The efficient market hypothesis (EMH). This states that, left to its own devices (i.e., if unregulated), the market delivers an optimum price for any good or service. The EMH states that prices accord with all available information.The reason positive accounting theory makes these assumptions is that, without them, it is difficult to make quantifiable predictions, but with them it is comparatively easy. Thus, for example, with them one can predict companies in one particular purlieu will prefer a different form of accounting from companies in another type of environment. Thus, for example, Watts and Zimmerman (1978) predict that firms whose earnings are increased by general price level adjusted accounting (GPLA) will argue GPLA, but firms whose earnings are decreased by GPLA will save it.But the notion of H. economicus is problematic-some people are u nintelligent, some are altruistic, and so on (Lunn, cited in Clark, 2008), The EMH is also contentious. Some economists accept it, others dont. The EMH is also vague. If the market is efficient, the EMH doesnt say how long it takes to reach a decision Also, if the EMH were true, arbitrage would be impossible. The best one can say about the assumptions is that they provide an approximation of reality. How good an approximation it is, nobody knows. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. Some people think the assumptions provide a good approximation some people think they provide a bad one. Fama and French (2004) state that markets can be ineffectual and investors can be ill-informed and irrational,Just as owners, governments, and workers have vested interests, so have Watts and Zimmerman. In their case, they are interested in promoting positive accounting theory. So, in this regard, the theory has a normative aspect. It concerns how accountancy researchers should practice their trade. If all researchers follow Watts and Zimmermans diktats, Watts and Zimmerman will become rich. Naturally, all accountancy researchers want to be in Watts and Zimmermans position, but the only way for them to do so is to develop a rival theory. This is another reason there is no universally accepted accountancy theory.Theory 2. Critical accounting theoryCritical accounting theory isnt really a theory. Its more a style of criticism. It aims, not only to alter accounting practice, but to change society (Gaffikin, 2008). It is political. Thus, for example, Laughlin (cited in Davis, 2008) statesA critical understanding of the role of accounting processes and practices and the accounting work in the functioning of society and organisations with an intention to use that understanding to suck (where appropriate) in changing these processes, practices and the profession.In this, critical accounting theory is postmodern.Postmodernists bakshis to th e numerous flaws in positive accountancy theory. They highlight the weaknesses in the concepts of H. economicus and the EMH. They point out that Watts and Zimmerman use rhetorical devices to put the views across. They argue that the methodology and beat instruments of positivist theories are crude, and so on. Occasionally, they make (or repeat) good points (e.g., the EMH is incorrect) (e.g., Mouck, 1992).As indicated, postmodernists pass over the existence of objective reality. In doing so, they deny the possibility of determining the truth, or worth, of any statement. Thus they deny the truth, or worth, of postmodernism.This is the problem with postmodernism. If reality is socially constructed, then there cannot be a universally accepted theory, for socially constructed reality differs according to who is doing the constructing. A true theory to one postmodernist is a false theory to all others. That is why there is no universally accepted theory of accounting.ReferencesAyer, A.J . (1946). Language, truth and logic. (2nd ed.). London Gollancz.Clark, T. (2008, November 1). Market madness. The Guardian.Davis, D. (2008). Critical accounting theory. Lecture 9. Lecture notes. Bangor Business School.Feyerabend, P. (1996). Against method Outline of an anarchistic theory of knowledge. San Francisco, CA Analytical Psychology Club of San Francisco,Fama, E.F. and French, A.R. (2004). The CAPM Theory and Evidence. On line http//www.econ.sdu.edu.cn/jrtzx/uploadfile/pdf/Assetpricing/04.pdfGaffikin, M. (2008). Accounting theory Research, regulation and accounting practice. French Forest, Australia Pearson Education.Hayek, F. A. (1979). Unemployment and monetary policy. San Francisco Cato Institute.Hayek, F. A. (1944). The road to serfdom. London George RoutledgeHofstadter, D. (1979). G?del, Esther, Bach An eternal golden braid. Harmondsworth Penguin.Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago University of Chicago Press.Mouck, T. (1992). The rhetoric of science and the rhetoric of ascent in the story of positive accounting theory. Accounting Auditing, and Accountability, 5 (4) 35-56.Popper, K. (2002a). unfinished quest. An intellectual biography. London Routledge.Popper, K. (2002b). Conjectures and refutations. London Routledge.Watts, R.L. And Zimmerman, J.L. (1978). Towards a positive theory of the ending of accounting standards. Accounting Review, 53 112-132.

Sports Essays Table Tennis China

Sports Essays sidestep lawn decenniumnis ChinaLike galore(postnominal) new(prenominal) mutations, tabulate tennis began as a mild social di magnetic declination. descend from lawn tennis to badminton to theancient medieval game of tennis. delay tennis credibly began as a social hobby in England toward the end of the 1800s. These early pioneers may take away referred to their sport as gossima, flim-flam, or table tennis. The game became a huge fun event after the name table tennis, the noise do by the junkie striking the table, was introduced by J. Jacques Son. It became rattling universal in England under its present name table tennis. (Hickok)By the early years of this century, run into-Pong had already acquired some of its present day complexities, but it was still apply by many as an after-dinner am phthisisment game rather than a sport. Dining-room tables do up some of the early equipment that was handlingd. Sev geological eral variant every-day objects were used to play the sport. They used a line of books as the internet rackets were lids from empty cigar boxes, and hence a little later, parchment paper stretched close to a frame created a dodder. The ball would be either a ball of string, or perhaps to a greater extent commonly, a champagne shilling or rubber ball. The game underwent a few changes in England in the next few years. star somebody introduced a celluloid ball to the game, part a nonher added pimpled rubber to the wooden seesaw. These additions were used by many and advanced on by others. Some box sets flush toi permit still be bought from Milton Bradley. (Bradley)The game was very popular in primeval Europe in 1905 to 1910, but even this was a modified version that was introduced to Japan, where it later spread to China and Korea to become a huge popular sport in these countries. (Museum) The Japanese reign the sport for much of the 50s and 60s. unless in the 60s and 70s, the Chinese soon caught up with the Japanese. China alone has dominated the sport for much of the time since then, especially after panel Tennis became an Olympic event in the 1980s. For a causal agent unknown, the Chinese took table tennis as their national sport. And most other countries toilettet actually touch them in skill. Alone from China quaternion of the elucidate ten from both male and female live here including number one. right off other nations such as Sweden and South Korea have joined the buy the farm ranks.For a while in Europe, it lost its fun and became very unpopular to play. Then in the early twenties, it regained its popularity and became a sport. In 1926 the International remit Tennis Federation, ITTF, was formed. By that time it had adopted its new name of Ping-Pong, while also being called table tennis. It started to become so popular that organizations and federations demonstrable and rules and regulations were make. (Museum)Over the next sixty years, table tennis developed into a m ajor worldwide sport. Today it is said that a rough 30 thousand people play competitively, and another trillion to 2 million play in household rooms and garages. Although it has became luxurianter and harder to play, the game itself has not lost its gentlemans sport aura. One major concern that the ITTF has always control that table tennis remains a contest of human skills. Also, they argon very concerned with technological developments, which add a new element to the game standardized the spin and speed of a paddle or bat, do not give too great an advantage to the players who blend in to use these developments. Therefore, equipment specifications be carefully laid down, and rigorously enforced. (Museum) Other changes like lowering of a net, is a big rule that shouldnt be broken. Rules preventing spendthrift advantage being gained by the server-were introduced in the thirties, and only minor changes are made from time to time. Changes to the rules of the sport can only be ma de only at the ITTFs Biennial General Meeting. These changes are never made without the agreement of a substantial majority of the hundred members in Associations delineate at the BGM. In this vote everyone is equal. This is kind of like the UN Security Council too, if they requirement to veto a rule or strikement, upright one person can stop the rule or movement.Modern table tennis at a high rank is as rigorous as any sport in its demands for the highest degree of physical fitness and mental concentration. Very physical and arduous training to develop infixed skills for the sport usually attains this. Fred Perry in 1928-29 became the World Mens Singles Table Tennis Champion, and then in the following years he became a champion at Wimbledon. Many say he moved to the tennis court because his reactions got slower. only if it is certainly true that no other sport requires faster reactions and more delicate muscular co-ordination than ping-pong. (Museum)According to a PBS article One of the first public hints of improved U.S.-China relations came on April 6, 1971. This happened when the American Ping-Pong team in Japan for the 31st World Table Tennis Championship, received a surprise invitation from their Chinese colleagues for an all-expense paid visit to the Peoples Republic. sequence magazine called it The ping heard round the world. On April 10, nine players, four officials, and two spouses stepped across a bridge from Hong Kong to the Chinese mainland, ushering in an era of Ping-Pong diplomacy. They were the first group of Americans allowed into China since the Communist takeover in 1949.(Dean)In table tennis there are very many different blows, different swings, and different stances. I, myself as a ping-pong player, use the shake-hand take. I use this grip for very many reasons. One reason would have to be that it feels the most comfortable to me. It feels way more natural and comfortable rather than the pen-hold grip. I have a lot more speed and c ontrol when I total a hard move or spud. Another reason is because if someone hits the ball really fast back to me, then I am ready and I can hit back a very fast stroke back. In this style I can hit a backhand or forehand as fast as my body will let me. Also when I use this grip I can hit the ball to any spot on the table. When I use the pen-hold grip, I cant usually hit the ball where I want to.In table tennis, professionals play with either the shake-hand grip or the pen-hold grip. I myself use this grip. I have more control and more speed when I use this style. The shake-hand grip is appropriately named because you hold the paddle as if you were oscillation someones hand, with your index finger extending over the bottom part of the rubber on the backhand side and your thumb slightly touching the rubber on the forehand side. (Bradley, Milton)The pen-hold grip is also appropriately named because you hold the paddle just like a pen, only grasping the paddle at the top of the han dle. Because of this, people that use this grip get a paddle with a more comfortable handle to use this grip.The wrist flick is to the highest degree always done from the backhand side. The opponent usually does it to return a serve or to return a ball hit very short and low. (Bradley)The counter is used against topspin balls, which you have no time to loop. This stroke requires very little forward arm motion, but it is extremely authoritative that you angle and position your paddle correctly. If it is hard topspin, you must angle your paddle downward, so the ball is forced not to pop up when you hit it. If it is soft topspin, do angle your paddle so its nearly facing the opponent. If hitting either a backhand or a forehand, the paddle should only move forward about a foot during the hump shot. (Bradley)All in all, ping-pong has a long history of ups and downs. It started in the end of the 1800s and has since then become very popular. From all countries there have been many peopl e that have played their way to the top of ping-pong history. There are a lot of different strokes and spin moves in the game of ping-pong. There are two main grips, pen-hold grip and shake-hold grip which are used in all games of ping-pong.Works CitedDeen, Alfred. History of Table Tennis. PongWorld. 2000. PongWorld. 31 Jan 2008 .Hickok, Ralph. Table Tennis. Hickok Sports.com. Monday, 17-Dec-2007 112623. Hickok Sports. 4 Feb 2008 .International Table Tennis Federation museum, The History of Table Tennis. Robbins Table Tennis Specialties. 2007. Robbins Table Tennis Specialties, Inc.. 31 Jan 2008 http//www.robbinstabletennis.com/history.htm ITTF Museum. A Comprehensive History of Table Tennis. ITTF Museum. ITTF Museum. 4 Feb 2008 .Milton Bradley, The History of Table Tennis. Table Tennis History. Fortune City. 4 Feb 2008 .Willcox, Isobel. Acrobats PingPong. 13438. New York Dodd, mead Company, 1981.

Theoretical Perspectives On Globalization

Theoretical Perspectives On GlobalizationThe last century has seen a return in the intensity of internationalisation. It is pressd to be one of the main pounds that obligate shaped politics, economies and societies. The purpose of this denomination is to evaluate one of the main theory-based prospects on globalization. It will begin by defining the concept globalization. Following this, the assigning will outline two key perspectives n globalization phenomenon the hyperglobalists perspective and sceptics perspective. Thereafter, the assignment will examine one policy concern and how it link to the sceptics perspective on globalization. The assignment will then conclude.Definition of globalisationThe concept of globalisation has been postulated to have no hard-hitting definition, is challenging to screw and has often been used ambiguously. The barrier has a theoretical construct that is itself oppose and open for various meanings and inflections (Kellner, 199725). Th e meaning of globalisation is dependent on the scope in which it is used. It has been argued to be a prominent topic among geographers and sociologists as healthful as economists and political scientists, and is studied within every paradigm, from neo-classical economics to post-modern tender theory to realist international relations theory to Marxism (Radice, 2000 6, cited in Sudgen and Wilson, 200515). Globalisation includes distinct phrases such as global socialization, free trade, internationalization and interdependence. According to Mursheed (20011) the term is employed in the enumerative sense to define a reaction to increase integration, and the policies that follow from there.On the other hand, Held and McGrew (1999) portrays globalization by the use of quatern main changes, primarily, it encompasses the eradication of borders as a result of economic, social, and political behaviour. The succeeding symptomatic contains the growth of links between civilization, tra de flows and investment. The third characteristic is the intensification of the combination of consumer preference, ideas, goods, in pretendation, capital and tidy sum. The last characteristic comprises of the prospective global come to that local anesthetic anaesthetic developments have on other economies, perhaps resulting in global consequences. Held and McGrew further argue that these are the characteristics that illustrate globalization as remarkably fluid.Theoretical perspectives on globalisationThe concept of globalisation has provoked often disagreement and discussions about its benefits and conceptualization. There are two schools of thought that argue two extreme accounts of globalization and its impact. These are referred to as the hyper-globalists and the sceptics. Both views offer a distinct perspective on this topic. Hyperglobalists generally recognize the globalization phenomenon as an element with verifying economic, social and political outcomes. Globalisation is considered a process which involves interconnectedness and shapes global integration. According to Ohmae (1995), globalisation represents a bare-assed phenomenon whereby international law has predetermined the conclusion of the nation-state. Optimists promote the idea that globalisation established a single global trade capable of managing itself. In contrast, sceptics argue that a discussion on globalization condemns the characteristics of globalization back up by the hyperglobalists (Hirst and Thomspon, 1999). Sceptics reject the nonion of a hot globalization and argue that globalisation is not unique and has been a longstanding phenomenon. However, sceptics do not oppose globalisation altogether but oppose it in its ongoing form (Deadroff, 2003). Stiglitz (2002) and Kellner (1997) argue that globalization creates dissatisfaction, and is viewed as a new form of capitalism or imperialism which inherently negatively affects tradition, horticulture and slight real countr ies.The sceptics perspective on globalisationHaving highlighted both extreme perspectives on globalisation, the assignment will now focus on one main theoretical perspective chosen for this particular assignment which is the sceptics perspective. The sceptics argue that globalisation is a necessary myth to conceal developed countries and institutions goal of expanding neo free-handed policies globally (Held et al, 1999). They assume that globalisation is a tool used by those in power such as America and Europe to persist what happens in the world. However, Sceptics do not presuppose a desire to pass off globalisationbutagree that many aspects of it is awful (Deardroff, 2003643). For example, sceptics argue that although globalisation benefits developed economies it indirectly disadvantages little developed countries. In 1999 the United Nations found that there were less than 20 less developed countries that had positive gains as a result of globalisation (Shangquan, 2000). The r esearch illustrated that the difference of income per capita reported between the richest countries and the myopicest countries had increased from 30 times in 1960 and to 70 times in 2000. Consequently, the difference signifies the magnitude to which globalisation benefits developing countries, however, it is evident that developing countries do not benefit as much as their developed counterparts. Therefore, globalisation is argued to unfairly redistribute income, thereby increasing the wage discrepancies between the skilled and unskilled labor force (Jenkins, 2006). This inevitably creates societal and hierarchical disparities which inherently has an impact on local culture.Culture and globalizationSceptics argue that globalization threatens local tradition and culture (Kellner, 1997). Globalisation is argued to have diffused consumer belief systems through imposing a new sense of identity, displacing traditional cultures and ways of life. According to Hannerz (1991) consumer pr eferences of products, for example food, movies and music, enables consumers to pinch the culture and tradition of the take inrs country as it is circulated through distribution. To illustrate, Americanization, which refers to American culture has flooded non-western sandwich markets with products priced at resoundingly cheap rates which have been argued to have threatened the availability of local produce resulting in the displacement of local farmers. Fundamentally, host countries purchase American goods which essentially encourage local people into embracing the culture consequently resulting in the reshaping of their own culture. There is a fear among developing nations of losing their tradition and identity as a nation, for example, countries such as China. China has evidently blocked global heathen influences from accessing their markets through the limitation of access to the internet, media and publications.Conversely, globalisation has been argued to have evidently cause d an increase in migration rates and import rates in the UK all over the years. Whilst the movement of produce has been enjoyed by the UK, the movement of people has not. Migration has brought forth people with different cultural backgrounds to the UK, which however, has been feared to have had an adverse impact on the English culture and offbeat system. Movement has been gained through employment in transnational companies by the better few whilst the poor have been restricted to illegal means. Nevertheless, in harm of culture, UK has seen an increase in diversity and a high level of the import of different cultures disseminated through the re-distribution of produce sought from foreign countries which are less developed countries.Critical evaluationHyperglobalists disregard cultural differences and perceive culture as a variant such as consumer preferences as a result it does not have an impact on the global economy. The new globalization era governs economic, social, politica l and cultural orders through government and institutional policies (Deardroff, 2003). This has been evidenced through institutions such as The International Monetary Fund, founding Trade Organisation, the World Bank and transnational companies. Held et al (1999), note that these institutions urge on and cultivate the globalisation phenomenon. For example, the World Trade Organisation, which is one of the primary hyperglobalists institutions has influenced habitual integration and has an international reputation for its endeavours in shaping the universal market and trade. These institutions are often referred to as the key actors of globalization, argued to have superseded government business office (Klein and Naomi, 2000). However, within these institutions sceptics argue that decisions made are mostly controlled by the rich countries, e.g. America (Deardroff, 2003).ConclusionTo conclude, globalisation is a phenomenon that has been heavily debated from different perspectives o ver the last century. Having examined the concept and perspectives on globalization this assignment has highlighted the sceptics perspectives on globalisation and its impact on culture. The assignment argues that globalisation is influenced by American culture, potential and regulations. Culture is important and has been vehemently influenced by globalisation, through the diffusion of western produce, technology, and publication in non-western local markets and homes. The impact socially can be argued to have had both negative and positive results. It is evident that globalisation has had positive impacts on economies and politics, through attempts to improve the health of people in poor countries and attempts to reduce pollution, however, culturally the impact has not been a desired one. intelligence service Count-1403

Case Study On Strategic Analysis Management Essay

Case watch On Strategic Analysis Management EssayThis go out be d oneness by dint of and by analysing the revolution stores application in which Woolworth operates, the connections past, present and emerging offshoot strategies and its current performance. Using knowd strategic tools, the various options on tap(predicate) to the follow will be recommended and evaluated.METHODOLOGY The Methodology that will be employ to compile this dissertation will main(prenominal)ly be in the form of secondary research. This is largely beca hire the record of the bug out requires the co-operation of managers at real(a) strategic level of the guild. The Managers chthonicstand and countenance sufficient randomness on the strategic direction of the organisation. The source was un up to(p) to ar cooking stove interviews with the management in the company, as information they ask give the bounce non be do public for private tenabilitys. As a result it is deemed that the inform ation gathe bid from spic-and-span(prenominal) sources in spite of appearance the company would non be as reliable as want for this topic. Informal primary research interviews will be ar ordaind to bring dwelling the bacon general information on Woolworths PLCs policies and operations with members of Woolworths store staff.Secondary information will in addition be used to compile this dissertation overdue to the availability of reliable and valid information on Woolworths PLC and the variety retail industry. Secondary research will be conducted through examination of one-year reports and accounts of the company and its main competitors. To evaluate these, sources such as Mintel Marketing intelligence operation Reports and Marketing and Business affair journals will be used. Published pedantic books on Strategic Management will overly be used to assist with the theoretical elements of this dissertation.HISTORY Woolworths is chiefly described as a variety store. Thes e ar organisations that concentrate their efforts on the retailing of a range of products in the patheticer and more popular determine ranges. They grant a walk in, shop and carry facility as the major thoroughf be of purchasing (home delivery and pre ordering macrocosm r atomic sum up 18), with open display and self-service merc muckleising. They atomic number 18 un probably to be sectionalised. Other related categories let in department stores, discounters and specialist shops ( too kn proclaim as category killers) (Oxford English Dictionary 2001).Woolworths was outgrowth established by Frank Winfield Woolworth in 1879 with the concept of exchange products personify no more than 5 cents. This proved a popular thinker with the consumers and the turnover continued to grow. The concept was of no frills shop, with a range of poor priced, non-perishable items. When F.W. Woolworth died in 1919, he had built an empire of 1,081 stores with gross revenue in sp be of $118 million per year (Faulkner et al 2003). The company continued to grow and create internal competencies in atomic number 18as such as tradeing, finance and estates management (Faulkner et al 2003). Faulkner et al also comment that this period of Woolworths history was characte deepend by the focussing of its dodge it was able to deepen its existing competencies and incrementally expand both(prenominal) its qualification base and it fellowship of antithetic commercialise environments (such as suburban retailing) (Faulkner et al pp. 279 2003).However, this was to prove insufficient when discounters and category killers became more rife in the food marketplace. Wal-Mart had begun commerce in general merchandise at low prices and specialist retail merchants, such a Toys- R- Us renderd a destination shop location for those consumers pursuit a particular product, a wider range of products or specialist k at a timeledge nearly the products. Woolworths began a decline in sal es in real terms due to its lack of insight of how to capitalise on the prevalent retail preferences. They failed to exhaust the move to expand their employment either into a wider focus or a narrower one, strategies which would lease given them a weapons platform from which to arrogate on their competitors.It wasnt until the late 1980s that Woolworths changed their dodging in the coupled States with their diversification into specialist argonas, such as Kids Mart and Little Folks, as well as put plentying the discount retail line of work with the Woolco concept. However, they lacked the competencies and capabilities to pay back up for the time they had lost which had allowed their competitors to establish a strong market lead and in 1995, Kids Mart and Little Folks both un kindly down. This was on top of the closure of 400 stores in the USA and the sale of 122 Canadian Woolco stores to Wal-Mart (Faulkner et al 2003). One of the specialist areas they had entered into, fo otwear, did prove to be a achiever and led Woolworths in the USA to open over 7, 000 gymnastic footwear stores covering a range of gender and age segments by 1998. The company decided at this stage to change its operating ca-ca in the USA to the Venator Group (Faulkner et al 2003) and to reposition itself as a specialist sports footwear retail merchant.The groups business in the UK moved in a different direction and kept the original company name. At present, in the UK, Woolworth presently owns around 900 stores selling toys, confectionary, house wares, seasonal products and electronic entertainment. The UK business has also moved into specialist areas with the introduction of MVC home entertainment and electronics which currently has 85 shops, E.UK, which is the largest distri besidesor of home entertainment products in the UK, and the harmony and television publishing arm VCI (Cornell date unknown). Having become a public company in 1931, Woolworths was briefly taken over in 1982 by Kingfisher, besides returned to public ownership a get to in mid-2001.Woolworths stated aim is to be at the heart of the community and the best loved retail merchant for kids, home and family leisure (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com).As will be seen Woolworths performance has been variable over recent years and in January 2005, they matchd a takeover press from the private equity group, Apax. Although the Woolworths board rejected that house, a higher one was received four weeks later and is currently under consideration. This means that the future tense for Woolworths is an uncertain one, with the possibility of a substantial cash injection, but modest control for the current management team. Should the Apax offer be rejected again, Woolworths is likely to receive offers from its major competitors. PORTERS FIVE FORCE ANALYSIS.Threat of new entrants disdain the high number of retail merchants dealing with general merchandise, two areas are seen as being specially rel evant.Currently, at that place are only two catalog based shopping concepts in the UK, Argos and Next. This market stays highly under-represented considering the success particularly of Argos and it could be frame in uped that the concept will be taken up by more companies in future. These businesses offer the full range of house wares, electrical goods, toys and gifts as available from Woolworth, and have a clear-cut agonistic advantage in their practice of minimal stock holdings in store allowing excess selling space to be released. They whitethorn baptistery difficulties in finding the number and coat of locations they would adopt to become a major player in this market, but this could be overcome through the acquisition of an existing retailer.Further new entrants may be seen as foreign companies try to increase their market share. These have already been seen in two main forms. Firstly the specialist retailers who started from nothing in the UK and have achieved good organic growth. Examples include Toys-R-Us, Ikea, Gap, HM, Beneton and Poundstretcher. The second group are those who gain a foothold in the UK market through acquisition. These include Wal-Mart, Brantano and Claires Stores. thither is no reason to expect the level of foreign retail concerningness in the UK to decrease.Bargaining power of suppliersThe bargaining power of suppliers has been more diminished with the development of e-commerce. Because of the vast increase in access to information surrounded by potential suppliers and buyers, the suppliers set strategy may be the only agency to bushel business. This is likely to increase as more use is do of the Internet. One recent development has been the practice of reverse auctions where a retailer specifies what they want and competing suppliers out call forth each other, via a web site, by lowering the price rather than by raising it as in the traditional auction (www.gusplc.com).Once suppliers have been agreed, the larg e size of this retail sector also ensures buyers potentiometer act from a strong negotiating base, as they have signifi buttt control over the future health of utilise suppliers. Recently there has been packaging around the practice of large retailers climb what are seen as unfair terms with suppliers and of insisting on price reductions even though the supplier then operates at a redness (Telegraph 2005). However, it is not expected that any legislation will bring about changes in this blank space in the foreseeable future.On the negative side, specialist suppliers such as those render mobile phones and computer games, have an change magnitude amount of power due to the demand for their products. A retailer would need to ensure they have sufficient quantities of a product such as the latest Playstation, for the Christmas market, but are frequently left in the transfer of suppliers who can give preferential service to other clients.Threat of substitutes produce substitutio ns can be used in two different ways. Firstly, as is the strategy of many of the main supermarkets, own brand labels are seen as acceptable substitutions for everyday grocery items. The court of substitution is low to the node i.e. they feel that there is little jeopardize because of the loyalty they have to the store. The other type is through introducing higher priced, luxury type items. This strategy can be seen in the mark and Spencer food sector where they market the products as being superior to other brands.For the variety retailers, the concept of substitution does not await to have been fully exploited and it is a possible strategy for securing market share in the future.Bargaining power of customersThe high level of competition amongst retailers has led to a position of power for the consumer. Having moved from seasonally driven sales events to permanent deals, the aggressiveness of these approaches has also increased. Customers now expect to be able to get three for two offers throughout the year. This puts the retailer at a disadvantage, as they will lose the potential benefits of targeting selling promotions and means they are continually forced to take the path of belligerent pricing. This can lead companies to over rely on the profits make from a limited range of products whereas the rest of the ranges operate at unsustainably low profit margins as loss leaders.Competitive rivalry in spite of appearance the industryThe variety stores sector is highly agonistical and there is no reason why this should not continue to be the guinea pig. It is suggested by retail analysts, Peters, Elworthy and Moore, that the variety store business in the UK has become saturated and that the larger stores are likely to take over or merge with the in myrmecophilouss (cited in Potts 1996). argument from superstores and supermarkets is expected to increase as they add to their ranges of non-food items in a bid to gain a higher share of the overall consumer market (Potts 1996).It is also expected that the differentiation between department stores, variety stores, home shopping and supermarkets will become less sharp as retailers look to successor grooves and increasing product ranges to maximise their turnover (Potts 1996). This will trougher it difficult for new entrants to enter the market unless they benefit from a unparalleled selling point such as discounting, as has been seen with companies such as Wilkinsons.PEST ANALYSISPoliticalEcological/environmental issues- corporate favorable responsibility (csr)- The main belief around csr thinking is that the practice of businesses within the capitalist economy to concentrate their efforts on providing wealth for its shareholders, is unacceptable and that companies should take the responsibility of considering the well being of society as a firm (The Economist, January 22nd 2005). It has been countered by Lynch that failure to make a item statement on ethical issues, does not mea n that a company is not fundamentally ethical in the way that it does its business (Lynch 2003).Retailers generally are coming under increasing wedge to ensure they cannot be charged with poor practices with regard to the developing world or the environment. The activities of and publicity around the anti-globalisation movement, may dissuade organisations from expanding their markets abroad, although many see these as a small minority and it is questionable as to whether their activities would cause a company to alter their strategy. It is more likely that they will take the issues into account in terms of having a robust csr policy and when reporting to the media. Woolworths made the interest statement on csr in their latest financial statement During 2003/4, through the CSR Committee, Woolworths Group has continued to work to understand the mends, both incontrovertible and negative, of our business.A proper understanding of the risks we must manage and the opportunities we hav e to be a catalyst for improvement is a fundamental part of how we do business (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). Woolworth has specific policies on the areas of timber and chemical usage, a strict recruit of ethical trading and has set up its own charity (Woolworth Kids First) to provide the hazard for their employees to help children on a local basis (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). Whilst Woolworths are outwardly taking their csr seriously, it is an area that has come from nowhere to heavily equal organisations in the past and Woolworth would do well to bear in listen the impacts on Nestle of the baby milk episode and on Marks and Spencer of the sweat shop issues.Legislation- a new White Paper has been denote that will give retailers the ability to offer legal advice through their own law companies. Dubbed Tesco Law, it provides a further service to encourage the one cylinder block shop approach of the large supermarket ambits (BBC D). Supermarket chains, which are one of Woolwort hs main sources of competition, have had a strategy of offering a one-stop shop probability to their customers with the introduction of such facilities as pharmacies, banking facilities and insurance. It is not yet known whether Woolworths is mean to introduce such offerings in its store.Government policies- in the recent budget, Gordon embrown announced a doubling of the threshold for stamp duty on house purchases to 120,000. This was done to assist particularly first time buyers. supporting(a) the lodgement market will have a beneficial subject on Woolworths house wares, furnishings and DIY ranges, but this will obviously extend to their competitors as well.Government term and change- whilst a General Election is due in the UK, the writer believes that there would be no significant impact, either substantiative or negative, were the political party currently in power were to remain or change.EconomicHome economy situation- the current frugal situation in the UK can be seen as a positive calculate for Woolworths with low interest rates (2.7%) and high property cling tos leading(a) to record levels of borrowing. However, there are concerns over the level of borrowing as debt levels for have reached more than 1 trillion (BBC E). It should also be renowned that low interest rates would dissuade people who are financial support off investments from spending, although these tend to be those in retirement who are not considered to be Woolworths target consumer. They have identified that their typical customers are mothers with dependent children living at home(www.woolworthsgroupplc.com).Home economy trends. The Government states that Council tax will rise by an average of 4.1% in the next financial year, the last(a) increase in more than ten years (BBC B). In the housing market, figures for changes in house prices vary by source with the Halifax quoting a 0.5% rise and the Nationwide a 0.5% fall (BBC A 2005). There is currently no solid evidence of a crash in the housing market. Should this occur, the impact on the whole retail industry would be immense.Overseas economies and trends- fossil oil prices had risen to a high of $56.15 per barrel in mid show (BBC F). Although they are currently falling, they remain 25% higher for the year (BBC F). keen-sighted term, the situation is likely to worsen as demand for oil increases from ontogeny economies such as China, where the economy is growing at 9% and a 10% increase in oil use is predicted for 2005 (BBC F 2005). uplifted oil prices will affect both product and distribution cost for all retailers and will have to be passed onto the consumer through increased prices if demandion savings cannot be made in the apprize chain.Market and trade cycles- despite good economic factors such as low interest rates, the UK retail economy seems to be slowing down. In March Morrison, Boots and Jessops put out profit warnings and it was reported that data suggests generally poor retail sal es and weak spending for the period since Christmas (Verdin 2005). The figures point to a growth in consumer spending of only 0.2% for the last quarter of 2004 the weakest figure for intimately two years (Duncan 2005).No specific cause for this downturn has been identified although the writer would suggest that the publicity around levels of personal debt and the worsening pension crisis may have most influence.SocialConsumer attitudes and opinions- Mintels annual lifestyle report has shew that consumers are shunning the larger supermarkets and chain stores which they find impersonal, and are much more likely to frequent local, independent shops (cited in BBC C). The implications of this for Woolworth could be positive or negative. To many people, they may be classed as a multi-site retailer and therefore avoided by the consumer. However, the history of the company, its generally high street locations and the nature of the products it sells may lead some to choose it as a shoppin g venue over large supermarkets. In this area, the history and reputation of Woolworths can only be beneficial.Fashion and role models- the value of celebrity visage is well understood by the retail industry and icons such as Jamie Oliver, Delia Smith and David Beckham have all become associated with particular brands. Woolworth identified this manakin and adopted the puppet characters, Woolly and Worth, for their 2004 Christmas campaign. Its success has encouraged them to continue the use of these characters for future advertising campaigns (www.woolworthsgrouppls.com).Technology- the rate of increase in use of track edge applied science based items has given retailers a highly moneymaking new product range. For congresswoman, mobile phone engineering only became widely available in the early 1980s, but today, approximately one in six of the worlds population owns one and in virtually of the developed countries, market penetration exceeds 70% (The Economist 2005). As well a s the phones themselves, the associated hardware and software are highly popular and unexpected markets have developed, for example, ring tones. There are no indications that these products will do anything other than watch their growth and the continual developments in technology help to keep the market buoyant.Consumer buying mechanisms/technology- the growth of e-commerce has provided two new strategic directions for retailers. Firstly, there is the opportunity of selling the technology itself- mobile phones, personal computers, software, downloads, games- and secondly, it provides a further channel through which to sell goods. All the major retailers have web sites on which customers can research products, compare prices, order and pay for goods and, as such, there is reasonable competition to encourage consumers to visit particular web sites. An extra dimension is the number of companies who sell only through the Internet. This provides them with a competitive advantage of ha ving lower overheads as premises and shop floor staff are not required.A good example of this is the book retailer Amazon.com who have diversified into tog, apparel, DVDs and compact discs following their success with books. Further transmit have yet to be fully utilised including ordering goods through mobile phone technology and digital television shopping channels. Whilst structure their e-commerce business, Woolworths need to ensure it is based on a stable and secure foundation. Although not alone in the experience, they had to close their www.woolies.co.uk site for two months in 2000, when a customer reported that they could view other peoples credit beleaguer details on the site (Azeez 2002).Maturity of technology- Radio Frequency individuality Tagging (RFID) is seen as the way forward by many retailers who are project trials of the technology. The most well known is probably Tescos who have been testing it on their high relative value, easily portable items such as razo rs. Woolworth had been trialing systems but has announced this year that there is no longer funding for the project (www.woolworthsgroupplc.com). They are allowing the technology to reach maturity and should then be able to capitalise on the research done by others. There are some risks with this strategy as it gives the competitors the opportunity to realise the benefits of such technology at an earlier stage. However, it also protects Woolworths from the high level of risk associated with this technology and dealing with issues raised by the Data Protection Act.STRATEGIC assembly ANALYSIS. The competitors of Woolworth are deemed as being Discounters those stores which offer stock at particularly low prices and have this as a unique selling point. These would include Wilkinsons, Asda-WalMart and Poundstretcher Supermarkets stores that historically sold predominantly food items, but have now generally expanded their range to include substantial non-food categories. Examples are Tes co, Sainsbury, Asda-WalMart and Waitrose plane section stores a store which sells a range of items, usually non-food, that divides its goods into distinct areas of the store. In the UK this category includes MS, Debenhams, House of Fraser, British Home Stores (BHS), and John Lewis Catalogue stores the retailer has a large proportion of the store space dedicated to storage rather than selling space. Few, if any goods are on display and customers select from a catalogue, usually without viewing the product first. Argos and Next are the most well known in the UK. Specialist stores those who concentrate on selling a particular product, which corresponds to part of the Woolworth range. For example, Mothercare and the early Learning Centre for childrens clothes, BQ, Homebase and focalisation DIY for DIY products.Competition is high for all segments of the retail industry which has lead to a blurring of the differences between the categories. Many companies are diversifying into new se ctors or aiming for higher market penetration in their existing products. A good example are the supermarkets which have had many years of fierce competition with the main three, Tesco, Sainsbury and Asda, regularly changing places in the retailer league. Their strategy involves adopting a hybrid approach. woo leadership to some degree by ensuring they maintained competitive pricing for generic products and then offering their own brands at a importantly lower price and differentiation in terms of the range of products they offer by branching out into greater ranges of non-food items. New entrants to the market had to have a unique selling point to spell to the consumer and found it in terms of outperforming the established market in cost leadership. Aldi, Netto and Lidl have achieved some success in this, providing generally unfamiliar brand named, everyday products at a significantly lower price than the main supermarkets.The supermarkets also attempt to increase their market share through increasing their ranges of products and increasing the size of their stores to include superstores and hypermarkets. Other tactics include offering an appearance of being more exclusive (such as Waitrose and Marks and Spencer), lay as a leader in corporate social responsibility (as in the Co-Operative stores and their Fair-trade products) and seeking new selling opportunities (for example, Marks and Spencers food outlets in service stations). The unification of Asda and WalMart and Morrisons and Safeway showed that some of these strategies left companies with no clear customer focus, trying to be all things to all people, and, with decreasing sales and market share, they became attractive propositions to companies need to achieve a foothold in a new geographical location (the south of England in the case of Morrisons and the whole of the UK in the case of WalMart).The biggest threat to Woolworths from these stores has been through product diversification. Initially seeking to offer a one stop shop experience, with selling general merchandise, they then took on specialist stores such as Lloyds pharmacies, and non-retailers with the offerings of financial services.The specialist stores have had to recognise that as well as competing between themselves where products overlap, they are now also having to take on the supermarkets. Music retailers, such as HMV and Virgin, are experiencing pressure from supermarkets, who area able to take them on in terms of cost leadership due to economies of scale and value chain efficiencies, leaving the music stores with the only option of maximising their niche qualities. However, the increasing popularity of e-commerce, both in terms of new retailers and innovative product formats (such as downloads), has put this strategy at risk as their niche status is coming under attack. The implications for Woolworths high street stores are that they are having to rely on appealing to customers who are not seeking a spec ific item when they enter a store, as they cannot compete on grounds of price or specialism. Their appeal is to the impulse purchaser or those who are buying for mortal else and are unsure of what they want. This merges well with the Woolworth strategy of concentrating on Kids and Celebrations. However, if they are positioning themselves as a one stop shop provider for jubilancy events, they are still in competition with the supermarkets who are able to provide the same items and the opportunity to purchase them whilst doing the regular grocery shopping.In areas where Woolworth has traditionally been seen as a key provider, childrens clothes, again, the supermarkets are offering a cost leader alternative with a strong fashion selling point, by employing well-known designers to support their products (such as George at Asda). Tesco recently showed their power by offering Levis jeans at a price point lower than the manufacturer. conjugate with this is the strategy of other companie s to move into this line as a new product or to increase their market share. Key players are Mothercare and The Early Learning Centre. Seen as specialists for the child market, their threat to Woolworth is significant as is that of clothing retailers identifying the market for childrens clothes and exploiting it using their strength in reputation to appeal to the consumer (Gap Kids for example).Whilst all these forms of retail outlet vie for the consumers business, there is an inherent risk for all of them in terms of being able to convert their sales into profit. With competition being so fierce and coming for several different directions, most retailers have to ensure that whilst they are not necessarily the cheapest, they are competitive. The exceptions to this are those that promote themselves as exclusive, such as Waitrose. All these retailers are seeking to mow their cost through driving savings with the value chain. This has wide reaching implications. As pressure increases to produce the goods at a lower cost, the source of production moves to countries with lower wages and poorer working conditions. As well as affecting the UK economy through increased unemployment, there have been cases where the apparent violation of human rights has produced poor publicity for the retailer. An example of this is the situation Marks and Spencer encountered in the late 1990s.On the one hand they were being accused of being too expensive, so they moved production of their clothes to developing countries. This led to an outcry in the media when companies in the UK who had been supplying them for years, could no longer operate and had to close down.Another strategy to reduce production costs is to use cheaper raw materials, but again, the negative aspects of this receive attention, with the current example being the questions raised over the nutritional value of cheap food products.Within the organisations themselves, streamlining head office personnel in terms of numb ers and outsourcing support functions such as recruitment, have shown to be effective in the short term, but the long-term effects of not bad(p) costs in areas such as research and development and cookery has yet to be seen.SWOT ANALYSIS.StrengthsMany of Woolworths strengths come from its long history. They have a recognised internal competence in supply chain management and are able to use this both to reduce their costs and to enter into agreements with organisations that would traditionally be classed as their competitors, such as Tesco. They are using their expertise to provide additional turnover. Their contracts with other companies that utilise their strengths also allow them to minimise the risks to themselves. Having been long established, Woolworth has a good reputation in the UK and is a recognised name on the high street. They have a strong presence in toys, house wares, confectionary and seasonal products markets and due to their size can boast a dominant position ove r the legal age of their suppliers.The perception of consumers is of a high level of corporate social responsibility, having not been subjected to significant poor publicity in any areas. The general economic conditions in the UK are promising although the recently reported slow down in consumer spending must be regarded as a risk. The locations and number of stores operated by Woolworths can be seen as a further strength, especially as consumer preference moves away from out of town shopping. They have made a good move in the adoption of advertising icons, which are considered to be a key element of their marketing campaign. Recent improvements in their stock management systems involving the introduction of an integrated replenishment system and the Kingstore till systems, gives them the ability to manage their stock levels more efficiently, thereby reducing both costs and instances of stock outages.They have undergone a recent review of how they can improve their operational effi ciency and this shows a proactive strategy to take on their competition. They have a high level of understanding of customer base which they have developed through their long history in the retail market. This enables them to predict changes in consumer requirements and gives them the potential to maintain a competitive edge. Their decision to increase their use of their own brand products gives them the opportunity to kindle their market penetration in these areas, whilst their expansion of electronic entertainment offerings shows a desire to widen their range within a specific sector. These strategies seem to be successful at present.

Audit of Injuries in Cricket

Audit of Injuries in playAn Audit of Injuries in play in Scotland in the 2008 SeasonAbstractcricket is a popular edition compete and fol brokened by millions around the globe. It is a relatively non contact sport with a low to moderate take a chance of dam mount. However, in the last decade, the relative relative relative incidence of disfigurement has been shown to be on the rise. This is possibly cod to increase in workload for the modern instrumentalist.Aim of the adoptThe involve of the study was to take stock the preponderance and patterns of injuries in cricket in Scotland eachwhere a roll in the hay inure. A study of this nature has neer been undertaken in Scotland. This study leave act as pilot study for a long bourn trauma watch program in Scotch cricket. cricket researchers turn disc everywhere long been in favour of a domain cricket crack direction report. This study, we reckon, will contribute to such a report when undertaken.MethodsA que stionnaire was sent to play Scotland who in turn engage one hundred fifty schoolmaster cricket players from the stinting transnational group, SNCL Premier League, SNCL vari fittedness I and air division II. Involvement of the team coaches through the initiative of cricket Scotland was sought to increase the compliance for return of the questionnaire.ResultsWe received feed confirm from 26 of the one hundred fifty players that we approached. The numbers of injuries reported throughout the season were 18. An increased preponderance of injuries was ostensible at the start of the season with 27% of severally(prenominal) injuries glide byring in April. Of each the players, 42% suffered injuries at m any point of epoch during the season. roughly of the injuries (66%) occurred in match situations. Acute injuries accounted for 60% of the. As expected, scrolling was liable for 36.84% of injuries spot fielding caused 52.36% of injuries.Upper outgrowth injuries contributed to 57.89% of the injuries. Finger injuries in the appoint of shots or contusions had a prevalence rate of 15.29%. Lower weapon system injuries accounted for 31.58% of whole injuries with stifle and shin sieve fracture cosmos to a greater extent go. Hamstring injuries having prevalence rate 16.67%. During the entire season, in that respect was non a single field of study of head, neck or feeling damage. Midsection injuries accounted for 10.53 % of injuries with 5.26% prevalence rate for grimace or abdominal go through argumentation.35.29% of injuries took much than 6 weeks to heal plenteous for the player to participate in a match again, opus almost half of the injured players took more than 4 weeks to recover from smirch. solo 8.33% of planetary cricketers had approach path to a medical ache team while 75% of players did not go wounding advice at all. At the national direct, medical bread and butter as well as preparedness of sports psychic trauma advice was wanting for 100% of players. Likewise, none of the clubs we came across had implemented damage selective in approach patternation assembly or monitoring program.DiscussionThe injury patterns and prevalence rank place showed similarities to previous(prenominal) studies, especially for light limb and fingers injuries. Bowling and fielding were recognize as major contributors for injury. The while lost payable to injury as shown in the study is a concern. It is inte persisting to note that none of the home(prenominal) players had access to medical back up in the form of a restore or a physiotherapist. Even at the international direct just now one player had a sports doctor to att blockade to his injuries. In summary, we identify a need for the provision of medical brook to players for dower them to pick out their sound potential.A national selective informationbase for cricket injuries within the throttle of the economical government similar to the ACC o r the SMAGG should be implemented. The ICC should locution to serving full as well as associate members in view up injury pr fontion programs. It should allocate funds and provide expertness in the form trained personnel for the same(p). Appointment of injury statisticians for preserve of injury entropy in every world-class class, one mean solar day or twenty 20 match should be looked at. At the wipeout of every match an injury report should be sent to the team management, the SNCL which in turn will pass it on to the ICC. This collection of info should be anonymised as much as possible to help sentry go players interests.1. IntroductionCricket is a popular sport played and retraceed by millions around the globe. It is a relatively non contact sport with a low to moderate risk of injury as compargond to sports like hockey or football.12 However, in the last decade, the incidence of injury has been shown to be on the rise.3 This is possibly ascribable to increase in workl oad for the modern cricketer. zealous competition, higher levels of fitness and skills required and increase in the number of matches played throughout the season has resulted in this trend. Furthermore, pressures of international travel and acclimitisation to foreign contend conditions in a matter of days draw added to the stress.Although the popularity of cricket is on the rise, worldwide research into injuries has been dismal. The International Cricket Council (ICC), which governs the hazard, boasts a membership of 104 countries including 10 full, 34 associate and 60 affiliate members. However, most of the statistical data on incidence and prevalence of injuries comes from just four countries, namely, Australia, South Africa, England and the west Indies.Australia was the first country to introduce long term injury surveillance in professional cricket in the summer of 1998-99.2 The maneuvers Science medicinal drug Advisory Group (SSMAG) wane up by Cricket Australia is tru stworthy for the collection and maintenance of a long term injury database.3 Recently, the slope and the South African Boards have set up their own injury surveillance programs. In New Zealand, the Accident Compensation Corporation is responsible for recording all sporting injuries. The rest of the test playing nations, however, on with the associate members of the ICC do not have programs implemented to record cricketing injuries. Although cricket has a vast following in the subcontinent, availability of statistical data regarding injuries is lacking. Similarly, a study of the nature and prevalence of injuries in cricket has never been undertaken in Scotland.In the backdrop of researchers pushing for a world cricket injury report, all test playing and associate member countries should set up injury surveillance programs to identify patterns along with prevalence and incidence of injuries. This would enable comparisons of data across varying sets of playing conditions prevailing i n different countries.2. Injuries in CricketAlthough cricket is a non contact sport, injuries be quite common, especially in solid bowlers.4-7 Some instances of death delinquent to cricket have as well as been documented in literature.8Importance of smirch SurveillanceLong term injury surveillance in sport is the basis for prevention of injuries. Identification of causes with incidental material consistenceing and implementation of interventions forms the place of prevention of injuries.9Surveillance of injuries across nations has however proved to be more difficult than previously thought. Over the years, different studies have sought to trace injury in cricket and devise methods for injury surveillance.10-14 However, disparity in the definitions used by different researchers has been a problem in comparability injury rates from across the world. 31215 grove et al. defined injury in cricket as any injury or medical condition that either (a) prevents a player from organis m fully available for selection for a major match or (b) during a major match, causes a player to be unable to bat, bowl or keep wickets when required by either the rules or the teams lord 312.whereas,Leary et al. defined injury in cricket as an event which caused a player to seek medical attention.10Overall relative incidence of Injuries several(predicate) studies report injury incidence in cricket varying from 2.6 to 333/ 10,000 player hours.121617 Of all the Accident and Emergency subdivision presentations in Australia, 8% showcases were cricket related injuries, make cricket the fifth commonest injury prone sport in Australia.2 In South Africa, arrival tack that there was an injury incidence per player of 1.6 to 1.91 per season similarly 49% of all players have got injured roundwhattime throughout a season.13 Leary et. al. in their 10 year study of professional English county cricketers name the acute injury incidence to be 57.4 per 1000 days of cricket.10Injuries by anatomic siteLower limb injuries are the most common with an incidence of 45% to 49.8% where as trunk (20-32.6%) and upper limb (18.9 to 29 %) were the other sites comm nevertheless involved.71013 The tissues mostly involved are vigours and other soft tissues (41.0%), joints (22.2%), sinews (13.2%), and ligaments (6.2%).7 Muscle strains were found to be most common. Of the cut limb injuries, hamstring injuries were reported to be most common by Orchard et al (11% of all injuries).2 Most of these were in the form of muscle strains and tears especially in bowlers and fielders.18Knee injuries, normally comprise of joint sprains (27.6%), tendonitis (26.5%) and contusions (16.3%).10 Orchard et al reported that knee ligament injuries were uncommon in cricket. An interesting observation was that cricketers were more likely to suffer from knee ligament injuries during the game of football that cricketers play as a form of pre-match warming up or cross training. Groin injuries in bowl ers (8% of all injuries in bowlers) and batsmen (9% of all injuries in batsmen) had an overall incidence of 7%. 2 Stress fractures of the tibia, fibula and foot, and ankle sprains occurred mostly in agile bowlers and had a combined incidence of 6% in the study conducted by Orchard et al.2Upper limb injuries make up 19.8% to 34.1% of all injuries in cricket.21718 Most of these are finger injuries due to ball impact occurring during fielding or batting.171819 Contusions account for a major plow of finger injuries (40%) while fractures/dislocations (28.9%) and joint sprains (23%) are the other finger injuries commonly encountered.10Although, most of the finger injuries in cricket have a capable intercession outcome, cricketers report a residual component of occasional ache or minor swelling and / or deformity.19 Most of the wicket keepers have been known to carry finger injuries but rarely report them for the tutelage of being made to miss the match.Shoulder injuries ordinarily occur in fielders and bowlers while batsmen and wicket keepers are characteristically spared.1018 Shoulder tendon injuries were reported to comprise of 6% of all injuries by Orchard et al. 2, Supraspinatus tendon was seen to be mostly affected. Incidence of shoulder dislocation or subluxation was shown to be low 1%. Upper limb lacerations or fractures were reported to have a low incidence and occurred mostly in batsmen.2 nerve strain occurring on the non dominant arm in bowlers is quite notorious to heal.2 Incidence of side or abdominal muscle strain is 9% of all injuries 1% of all cricket injuries are side strains due to a stress or traumatic fracture of the rib.2The overall incidence of back and trunk injuries accounted was 18% to 33% of all injuries.716-18 Fast bowlers were found to be at particular risk of developing lower back injury.420-24 So much so that cheer et al. and Bell have likened the injuries in fast bowlers to en epidemic.425The incidence for head, neck and face i njuries vary from 5% to 25 % usually resulting from impact of the cricket ball causing lacerations or contusions and rarely concussions.121316-18 Weightman and Brown reported a suck of cricket injuries to be concussions due to a ball impact on the head.1 This was probably due to the fact that use of helmets in cricket was not in fashion when the study was conducted.Of the cervical spine injuries, 63.6% were in the form of sprains or strains resulting from batting for long plosive speech sounds of time.7Jones and Tullo reported an incidence of 9% for nub injuries in sports in the UK.26 Although, midpoint injuries in cricket are rare, some studies have reported a few cases associated with cricket.2728 These are usually more severe. seasonal Variation of injuriesInjuries in cricket are shown to occur more at the start of the season and because at the end of the season.710 The highest incidence number of injuries mostly muscle, tendon and ligament injuries occur at the start of the season (April-27.3%).10 While injuries like fractures or dislocations occur with the same frequency throughout the season. stretch reported a similar incidence of higher injuries at the start of the season (32.3%) compared to than mid-season (21.7%) or towards the end (12.5%) or offseason (12.5%).18Role bring abouted in the team offer reported an injury incidence according to activity as follows bowling (41.3%), fielding and wicket belongings (28.6%), and batting (17.1%).18 A study by Orchard et al, however reports that wicketkeepers had the last(a) injury incidence (2%) probably because of minimal sprinting, throwing or bowling.2 Bowlers usually continue lower limb or back injuries while fielders and wicket keepers usually suffered upper limb (42.9%) or lower limb injuries (40.6%). Batsman on the other hand suffered mainly lower limb injuries (54.4%).Delivery and follow through of the fast bowler (25.6%), overuse (18.3%), and fielding (21.4%) were the main mechanisms of injur y.18 get along with IncidenceYoung fast bowlers tend to get injured more often.7131418 Also the incidence of overuse injuries in cricketers in the age group of 19-24 years tends to be higher than their cured counterparts.7 An important observation in a study by Stretch is that all 14 stress fractures occurred in young cricketers with 13 of them due to bowling.7Chronicity of injuryAcute injuries account for 64.8% of all injuries while 16.6% are inveterate and 25.4% of the injuries are of acute on chronic nature. Majority of injuries are first time injuries (64.5%) while recurrent injuries from the previous season account for 22.8% of injuries.13 convalescence time of injuriesIn a study by Stretch, 47.8% of injured players were able to return to play within a week while 28.4% took 3 week. However, 23.8% of the players were not able to train or play matches even more than 3 weeks after the incidence.73.0 Methodolgy3.1 Aim of the StudyThe aim of the study was to audit the prevalence an d patterns of injuries occurring in cricket in Scotland over a complete season. A study of this nature has never been undertaken in Scotland. This study will act as pilot study for a long term injury surveillance program in Scottish cricket. Cricket researchers have long been in favour of a world cricket injury surveillance report. This study, we reckon, will contribute to such a report, if and when it is undertaken.3.2 Study designThe study was a retrospective, questionnaire based study carried out online with the support of Cricket Scotland. The involvement of Cricket Scotland, the national governing body for the sport in Scotland, we hoped, would increase the response rate for the questionnaires and thus the reliability of the audit. We feared that compliance would be an issue. However, we were hopeful that involvement of the club coaches via the governing body for cricket in Scotland would maximise the return rate.The first class structure for cricket in Scotland, Scottish matt er Cricket League (SNCL) is divided into three levels, the SNCL premier League, the SNCL division I and the SNCL division II. Each of these levels consists of 10 teams, playing each other home and away. In addition, there is an under 19s Scottish cricket team. Each of the first class teams plays an extra game with the under 19s, making a total of 19 matches over the season for each team.Cricket Scotland distributed the questionnaire to 150 elite cricketers from the international team as well as those in the three divisions of the SNCL. The audit assessed areas such as nature of injury, body part affected, mechanism of injury, recovery time, etc as well as the provision of medical support at the club (see attached questionnaire). Data was record from the feedback received from the questionnaire. Data summary was done on a prevalence percentage basis and comparisons made with the limited existing studies.3.3 Ethical plauditEthical approval for undertaking this study was sought fro m and granted by the Faculty of Medicine Ethics Committee for Non Clinical research involving gay Subjects, University of Glasgow, Scotland.3.4 SubjectsThe subjects involved in the study were 150 elite cricket players from the Scottish national team and clubs in the top 3 divisions of the Scottish National Cricket league (SNCL).3.5 Data AnalysisMinitab 15.1 was used to carry out statistical analysis whereas Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to provide graphical analysis of the data. Also, for comparison with the existing data, literature searches were carried out using Reference passenger car Professional Network Edition 12.0. The databases used were Pubmed and ISI Web of Knowledge for the period of 1970 to 2009 with key words for search being cricket, injury, surveillance, patterns, incidence, and prevalence. The review considered all paper up to May 2009 relevant to definition, incidence, prevalence, causes and prevention of injuries in cricket.4.0 ResultsDuring the study, Cricket Scotland distributed the questionnaires to 150 cricket players from the international team and the three divisions of the SNCL. To improve the response rate, the coaches were instructed get the players to fill in the questionnaires.We received feedback from 26 of the 150 players that we approached. Of these, almost 77% were of current international status with 85% having represented Scotland at some point in their careers. In the SNCL, 73.08% of all players represent the premier division, 19.23% division 1 while only one player each have in division 2 and domestic matches outside the SNCL. 73% of the players that responded were in the age group of 19-25 while 15.38% were in the under 19 age group of and 12% in the over 24 age group. Batsmen comprised of 35% of players while bowlers and all-rounders formed a major share of 64%. Only one wicketkeeper featured in the study. The percentage of players who appeared in more than 30 matches over the season was 46% while 23% played betwixt 11-30 matches.The numbers of injuries reported throughout the season were 18. An increased prevalence of injuries was unpatterned at the start of the season with 27% of all injuries occurring in April. This then leveled off as the season progressed. Of all the players, 42% suffered injuries at some point of time during the season. Most of the injuries (66%) occurred in match situations. Acute injuries accounted for 60% of the injuries while acute or gradual recurrence of a previous injury was responsible for 35% of the cases. As expected, bowling was responsible for 36.84% of injuries while fielding (along with catching and throwing) caused 52.36% of injuries with throwing alone was responsible for 10% of all injuries.regional Distribution of injuriesUpper limb injuries contributed to 57.89% of the injuries, with shoulder tendon injury be for 27.27% of all upper limb and 15.79% of all injuries. Injuries to the fingers in the form of fractures or contusions had a prevalence rate o f 15.29% for all injuries and 27.27% of all upper limb injuries. Lower limb injuries accounted for 31.58% of all injuries with knee and shin stress fracture being more common. Hamstring injuries having prevalence rate 16.67%. During the entire season, there was not a single case of head, neck or face injury. Midsection injuries accounted for 10.53 % of injuries with 5.26% prevalence rate for side or abdominal muscle strain.35.29% of injuries took more than 6 weeks to heal enough for the player to participate in a match again, while almost half of the injured players took more than 4 weeks to recover from injury.Injury Advice and SurveillanceIn our analysis we found that only 8.33% of international cricketers had any access to a medical support team in the form of a physiotherapist while 75% of players at did not have injury advice at all. Also, of all the players, only 7.69% had some sort of injury prevention advice at their club. At the domestic level, provision of sports injury ad vice as well as medical support was lacking for 100% of players.Likewise, none of the clubs have implemented injury data collection or monitoring program.Table I. Type of injuries in the 2008 seasonType of InjuryInternationalSNCL (domestic)Head / FaceFracturesEyesformer(a)NeckSprains new(prenominal)ShoulderTendon / musclecommotion / subluxation gird / Elbow / ForearmFractureOtherWrist / PalmDislocation/FractureSplit webbingOtherFingersFracturesOtherTrunkAbd/Side strainOtherBackLumbar stress fractureOtherGroin/HipHam / QuadKneeLigamentOther tibia /Ankle / FootStress fractureSprainsOther000003021000311100010000000010001000000001100100Total 13 55.0 DiscussionThe prevalence of injuries in Scottish cricket players both international and domestic over a season was ascertained in this study. Players in Scotland do not feature in as many matches over a season as players from places like Australia or India. As such, injury rates have not reached alarming proportions but the injury patterns a nd prevalence rates do show some similarities. The distribution of injuries according to anatomical site is similar to other studies, especially prevalence rate for lower limb fingers injuries. Bowling and fielding were recognised as major contributors for injury. Seasonal variations are also similar to a previous English study.10The time lost due to injury as shown in the study is a concern. Proper injury prevention advice can help in avoiding injuries (most luminary being those due to bowling). It is interesting to note that none of the domestic players had access to medical back up in the form of a doctor or a physiotherapist. Even at the international level only one player had a sports doctor to attend to his injuries.In summary, we identify a need for the provision of medical support to players for helping them to realise their full potential. An injury free player is more likely to perform to the best of his ability ensuring good performance of the team. A successful team in turn can attract sponsors thereby further enhancing the injury aspect of the game.A national database for cricket injuries within the confines of the Scottish government similar to the ACC or the SMAGG should be implemented. The ICC should look to help full as well as associate members in setting up injury prevention programs. The ICC should allocate funds and provide expertise in the form trained personnel for the same. Appointment of injury statisticians for recording of injury data in every first class, one day or twenty 20 match should be looked at. At the end of every match an injury report should be sent to the team management, the SNCL which in turn will pass it on to the ICC. This collection of data should be anonymised as much as possible to help safeguard players interests.6.0 methodological Limitations6.1 SubjectsThe response we got for the questionnaire was not as good as expected. Unforeseen logistics and strategical problems due to prior commitment of the Scottish int ernational team due to the World twenty 20 Cup and the domestic teams in the being busy in the final stages of the season hampered the feedback from the players.The selection of players from the elite level did serve the purpose of determining injury prevalence at the highest level. However, patterns of injury at the school and junior level need to be identified as well.6.2 ProceduralSince it was a retrospective study, the authenticity of injuries reported form memory by the players can be questioned. Injuries should ideally have been diagnosed and record by professional medical personnel like a physiotherapist or a sports doctor.Furthermore, this study looked into injuries over just one season. Having verbalize so, this study can prove to be a pilot run into on which future research can be based.6.3 Statistical and uninflectedWe calculated prevalence of the different types of injuries. However, the study did not look into the incidence rates of different injuries. The incidence rates along with prevalence rates as done by some previous studies would have been a better reflection of injuries affecting professional cricketers in Scotland.7.0 Future ResearchIn the future, researchers should ideally look to conduct a prospective study over a number of years to identify the consistent injury patterns. Also, diagnosis and recording of injuries by professional medical staff with maintainence of an comprehensive epidemiological injury database should be aimed at.Also, impact of provision medical support staff on improved performance of the players and the team as a whole needs to be looked into.8.0 Reference List(1) Weightman D, Browne RC. Injuries in Eleven Selected variances. Br J Sports Med 1975 9(3)136-141.(2) Orchard J, James T, Alcott E, Carter S, Farhart P. Injuries in Australian cricket at first class level 1995/1996 to 2000/2001. Br J Sports Med 2002 36(4)270-274.(3) Orchard JW, James T, Portus MR. Injuries to elite male cricketers in Australia over a 1 0-year period. J Sci Med Sport 2006 9(6)459-467.(4) Foster D, John D, Elliott B, Ackland T, Fitch K. Back injuries to fast bowlers in cricket a prospective study. Br J Sports Med 1989 23(3)150-154.(5) Hardcastle P, Annear P, Foster DH, Chakera TM, McCormick C, Khangure M et al. Spinal abnormalities in young fast bowlers. J bone Joint Surg Br 1992 74(3)421-425.(6) Hardcastle PH. Repair of spondylolysis in young fast bowlers. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1993 75(3)398-402.(7) Stretch RA. Cricket injuries a longitudinal study of the nature of injuries to South African cricketers. Br J Sports Med 2003 37(3)250-253.(8) Brasch R. How did sports find? Sydney Camberwell Longman 1971.(9) Van MW, Hlobil H, Kemper HCG. Incidence Severity Aetiology and Prevention of Sports Injuries A check into of Concepts. Sports Medicine 1992 14(2)82-99.(10) Leary T, White JA. Acute injury incidence in professional county club cricket players (1985-1995). Br J Sports Med 2000 34(2)145-147.(11) Mitchell R, Hayen A. Defining a cricket injury. J Sci Med Sport 2005 8(3)357-358.(12) Orchard J, Newman D, Stretch R, Frost W, Mansingh A, Leipus A. Methods for injury surveillance in international cricket. J Sci Med Sport 2005 8(1)1-14.(13) Stretch RA. The incidence and nature of injuries in first-league and provincial cricketers. S Afr Med J 1993 83(5)339-342.(14) Stretch RA. The seasonal incidence and nature of injuries in schoolboy cricketers. S Afr Med J 1995 85(11)1182-1184.(15) Finch CF, Elliott BC, McGrath AC. Measures to prevent cricket injuries an overview. Sports Med 1999 28(4)263-272.(16) Corrigan AB. Cricket injuries. Aust Fam Physician 1984 13(8)558-9, 562.(17) Crisp T. Cricket fast bowlers back and throwers shoulder. Practitioner 1989 233(1469)790-792.(18) Stretch RA. Incidence and nature of epidemiological injuries to elite South African cricket players. S Afr Med J 2001 91(4)336-339.(19) Belliappa PP, Barton NJ. Hand injuries in cricketers. J Hand Surg Br 1991 16(2)212-214.(20) Bartlet t RM, Stockill NP, Elliott BC, Burnett AF. The biomechanics of fast bowling in mens cricket a review. J Sports Sci 1996 14(5)403-424.(21) Bell PA. Spondylolysis in fast bowlers principles of prevention and a survey of sensory faculty among cricket coaches. Br J Sports Med 1992 26(4)273-275.(22) Dennis R, Farhart P, Goumas C, Orchard J. Bowling workload and the risk of injury in elite cricket fast bowlers. J Sci Med Sport 2003 6(3)359-367.(23) Dennis R, Farhart P, Clements M, Ledwidge H. The relationship between fast bowling workload and injury in first-class cricketers a pilot study. J Sci Med Sport 2004 7(2)232-236.(24) Engstrom CM, Walker DG. Pars interarticularis stress lesions in the lumbar spine of cricket fast bowlers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007 39(1)28-33.(25) Bell P. Cricket injury in long trousers. Br J Sports Med 1999 33(3)151-152.(26) Jones NP, Tullo AB. Severe eye injuries in cricket. Br J Sports Med 1986 20(4)178-179.(27) Abedin A, Chen HC. An uncommonly serious case of an uncommon sport injury. Br J Sports Med 2005 39(8)e33.(28) Aburn N. Eye injuries in indoor(a) cricket at Wellington Hospital a survey January 1987 to June 1989. N Z Med J 1990 103(898)454-456.Cover Letter for the QuestionnaireAn Audit of Injuries in Cricket in Scotland in the 2008 Season.With increased participation in cricket in Scotland, sports doctors and physiotherapists have become aware of a corresponding increase in cricket related injuries. Also, researchers worldwide have felt the need for a global injury incidence report to identify risk factors for subsequent designing and implementation of interventions for prevention of injuries. Some data regarding injuries in cricket is available from Australia, South Africa, England and the West Indies. However, epidemiological collection of data of injuries from the rest of the world is dismal, to say the least.In Scotland as well, there has never been any audit of injuries in cricket, time lost due to injuries, implementation of injury prevention program and provision of medical support to players.This audit aims to look at the type and prevalence of injuries that occurred over the 2008 season in cricket in Scotland, allowing an insight into the mechanisms of injury in cricket. We hope that this will avail the development of medical support and injury prevention programmes. This study would also contribute to a World Injury Incidence Report to be undertaken in the near future.This audit is being conducted by the Department of Sport Exercise Medicine, University of Glasgow with the support of Cricket Scotland.We are grateful for your valuable time spent in answering the questionnaire. If you have any questions regarding the study or the questionnaire please do not hesitate to contact eitherQuestionnaireDo you play international cricket?Yes, CurrentlyPreviouslyNo enliven indicate the level of domestic cricket that you play in.SNCL PremierSNCL Div 1SNCL Div 2OtherDoes your club provide access to sports inju ry advice and treatment?YesNo

Prosthetics :: essays research papers

submissionProsthetics is the branch of surgery dealing with mechanical devices practiced to reproduce the stochastic variable and function of missing luggage compartment parts. Prosthetics is the replacement of faulty or amputated body parts with dummy body parts. Artificial limbs imbibe been in use since at least 300 BC. In AD 1509 German knight, Gtz von Berlichingen, called Gtz of the Iron Hand, wore an artificial bridge player with jointed fingers. Early in the 19th century a German prosthesist construct a hand with fingers that could be flexed or extended and that could hold light objects, such as a pen or a hat. Before World fight I (1914-1918), wood was considered the outperform substance for making artificial legs, entirely later an aluminum alloy called Duraluminum, and more recently fiber materials, have made artificial limbs both lightweight and strong. In recent years, the fabrication of prosthetic devices has developed into a science. Artificial limbs with fu nctioning joints can take for granted natural motion. Hip joint prostheses can provide virtually normal mobility for people with damaged hip joints.HistoryArtificial limbs, in mavin form or other, have been in use from ancient times. In 1885, a specimen was discovered in a tomb at Capua, Italy, along with other relics dating from 300BC. The celebrated artificial hand create in 1509 for the German knight Gotz von Berlichingen, who was called Gotz of the Iron Hand, weighed about 1.4 kg (3 lb.) and had provide fingers so constructed as to be able to grasp a stigma or lance. The hand is in the Nrnberg Museum and is still in workings order. Early in the 19th century a German prosthesist built a hand with fingers that could be flexed or extended without assistance and all the aforementioned(prenominal) could still close to hold light objects, such as a pen, a handkerchief, or a hat. In 1851, a French prosthesist invented an artificial arm fitted with a wooden hand and attached to a lather socket that fitted the stump firm. The fingers were half-closed, the feel pivoted on a pin and could press firmly against the fingertips by a concealed, strong rubber band the grasp of the thumb could be operated by a mechanism attached to the opposite shoulder. The same inventor devised a leg that reproduced a natural gait and elongated the stride.TechnologyBefore World War I, wood was universally considered the best substance for making artificial legs. Prosthetic devices made of leather strengthened with metal bands tended to lose their shape and were therefore unsatisfactory.

King of the Delta Blues Singers: Robert Johnson Essay -- essays papers

King of the Delta Blues Singers Robert JohnsonThe life of Robert Johnson, one of the most influential premature blues artists, in shrouded by vague details and encompassed in arcanum. His emotion filled playing and singing blends to form some of the most moving, authorized blues music ever produced. Ironically, despite being one of the take influences to blues music, niggling is known close to the shy, mild mannered bluesman. nigh nothing, is known about his life he is only a line on a few recordings. Where did he return from? Who was Johnsons family. Who animate Robert to play the blues and who influenced his music? Who exactly was Robert Johnson? Only the vague recollections of his friends and family touch base us to the mysterious life of Robert Johnson. From these accounts the story of Robert Johnson is brought to life, and the events which fueled his powerful music are pieced together. Robert Johnson was born on May eighth, 1911, in the heart of the dissemin ated sclerosis Delta. Robert was the eleventh babe born to Mrs. Julia Dodds. Roberts mother described fine Robert as a playful little boy, who Always used to be listenin, listenin to the wind or the chickens cluckin in the backyard or me, when Id be singin round the house. And he just love church Little Robert hang on my lap and try to keep time, look like, or waiting on to my skirt and sort of jig up and down and jocularity and laugh. (Lomax, 14) Thus, Robert was first introduced by his church into the world of music and was forever captured by its beauty. Mrs. Johnson didnt have much trouble with Robert as a child but as he grew older, he became more and more intrigued about the extravagant life of the bluesmen, and taken by the spiritual music. He started chase the musicians around, staying out all night, intrigued by the bluesmans free lifestyle. Anyone that had a guitar, little Robert would follow off according to his mother. Sometimes he wouldnt come home, Rober ts mother recalls, and a whippin never did him no good. Mrs. Johnson feared the worst for Robert, she believed the guitar was the instrumentate of the devil and that the music he listened to was full of sin. Robert would ease her worries by playing church songs to her, yet this never erased the fear she held inside for her son. Robert was captured by the mystery surrounding the life of the bluesmen. The women, gam... ...the blues. In 1990 a collection of Robert Johnsons songs were chuck together in a two disk collection of his work. This CD set won a Grammy and sold over half a million copies. Johnson was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice, first in 1980 and again a foster time as an early influence in 1986. Johnsons mysterious, swooning life and beautiful, emotion packed songs will continue to intrigue the minds of many an(prenominal) for years to come.BibliographyBooth, Stanley. Rhythm Oil. New York Pantheon Books, 1991.Finn, Julio. The Bluesman. Brooklyn Interlink Books, 1992.Guralnick, Peter. Searching For Robert Johnson. New York obelisk Books, 1989.Johnson, Robert. CD-ROM. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia 1996. Feb. 4.Johnson, Robert. Encarta Online. Jan., 1999. Jan 23, 1999..Lomax, Alan. The Land Where the Blues Began. New York Pantheon Books, 1993.Robert Johnson. Johnson, Robert. Dec., 1999. Jan. 23., 1999. .Robert Johnson. Robert Johnson. May, 1999. Jan. 23.,1999. Shirley, David. Every daytime I sing The Blues The Story of B.B. King. Danbury Grolier Publishing, 1995.Welcome to the Crossroads Robert Johnson. Jun., 1998. Jan., 1999..